What is Phonology?
Phonology is the study of human sounds. The symbols at the top of this page are from the International Phonetic Alphabet, a universal alphabet that contains all the sounds in all human languages across the world. Here is a chart of the parts of the mouth and a chart of the IPA symbols that represent the sounds in English. We are beginning with consonants.
Consonants
Places of Articulation: 1. bilabial 2. labiodental 3. interdental 4. alveolar 5. palatal 6. velar 7. uvular 8. glottal
https://www.myenglishteacher.eu/blog/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/consonants-table-english.png
The things I’ve been calling sounds are actually called phonemes. All speech is sound, so the word sound is too vague. A phoneme, roughly, is a sound that is created in one motion of the mouth. For [p], the lips come together and then return to their regular position. Only one motion was made. But the sound represented by x is two phonemes, [k] and [s], so you can’t always tell if something’s a phoneme based on how many letters represent a sound in English.
Now, let’s go into how phonemes are categorized. Phonemes are categorized by what literally happens in the mouth when we make them. In order to know how to categorize them, one must know the parts of the mouth:
The diagram above shows the vocal tract. The opening between the vocal cords is called the glottis and it is located in the larynx. Above the larynx is a tubular part called the pharynx. The oral cavity is just the mouth, and the nasal cavity is the nose and the tube that connects it to the throat.
Notice the numbers and the labels. These are the places of articulation,and this is how we name consonants. The phoneme [b] is bilabial because it is made with the two lips. The phoneme [f] is labiodental because it is made with the teeth and the bottom lip. Alveolar phonemes are made by raising the tongue to the alveolar ridge, which is how we pronounce [t].
What also distinguishes phonemes are the different manners of articulation. Some phonemes are voiced, for example, and some are voiceless. [v] and [f] are articulated in the same way, but when saying [v] the vocal cords vibrate, and when saying [f], they don’t vibrate. The other main distinction is nasality. Most consonants, and most phonemes for that matter, resonate in the oral cavity, while others, like [n], resonate in the nasal cavity. So a phoneme can be voiced or voiceless, nasal or oral, and it can also fall into these categories:
Stops ([p], [b], [m] [t], [d], [n], [k], [g], [ŋ], [ʔ], [tʃ], [dʒ]): A stop is a manner of articulation where the airstream coming out of the mouth is briefly blocked, or stopped. Notice how in saying [t] there is a brief moment of tension before the tongue is released from the alveolar ridge. That is a stop. [m], [n], and [ŋ] are stops because even though air flows unobstructed through the nose, the airflow of the oral cavity is completely stopped.
[p], [b] and [m] are called bilabial stops because the air is obstructed by the lips. [t], [d], and [n] are alveolar stops because the air is blocked at the alveolar ridge. [k], [g], and [ŋ] are velar stops because the air is blocked at the velum. [ʔ] is a glottal stop because the air is blocked at the glottis.
Fricatives ([f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ], [h]): To make a fricative, the stream of air flows through a space constricted enough so that there is friction between the air and the place of articulation. [f] and [v] are labiodental fricatives because the air is constricted between the lips and the teeth. With the vocal tract diagram and the chart below it, you should be able to figure out the rest.
Affricates ([tʃ], [dʒ]): An affricate is a stop immediately followed by a fricative. This is clearly represented in the IPA symbols. Ch in church is really [t] and [ʃ] combined.
Liquids ([l], [r]): Liquids are phonemes in which the airstream is somewhat constricted, but there’s enough open room so that it’s not a fricative. For [r], the tongue only comes very close to the roof of the mouth, the two parts don’t feed air through a constricted enough space to create friction.
Glides ([j], [w]): Glides are consonants derived from vowels. Notice how when you say yeah with uncertainty, you might draw it out and say “ee-yeah….” Usually when you say yeah, your mouth rapidly transitions from the position of [i] to the position of [æ]. There is little obstruction and you glide smoothly from one vowel to the next. These are named in unpredictable ways. [w] is a labiovelar glide because the lips are together and the tongue is raised to the velum. [j] is a palatal glide because the tongue is raised to the palate.
Now, we have covered all the ways consonants can be described: their voicing, whether they are oral or nasal, and the place and manner of articulation. For example, [v] is a voiced oral labiodental fricative. “Oral” is redundant. A consonant is assumed oral unless it is explicitly said to be nasal. So [v] is just a voiced labiodental fricative.
Now, let’s go into how phonemes are categorized. Phonemes are categorized by what literally happens in the mouth when we make them. In order to know how to categorize them, one must know the parts of the mouth:
The diagram above shows the vocal tract. The opening between the vocal cords is called the glottis and it is located in the larynx. Above the larynx is a tubular part called the pharynx. The oral cavity is just the mouth, and the nasal cavity is the nose and the tube that connects it to the throat.
Notice the numbers and the labels. These are the places of articulation,and this is how we name consonants. The phoneme [b] is bilabial because it is made with the two lips. The phoneme [f] is labiodental because it is made with the teeth and the bottom lip. Alveolar phonemes are made by raising the tongue to the alveolar ridge, which is how we pronounce [t].
What also distinguishes phonemes are the different manners of articulation. Some phonemes are voiced, for example, and some are voiceless. [v] and [f] are articulated in the same way, but when saying [v] the vocal cords vibrate, and when saying [f], they don’t vibrate. The other main distinction is nasality. Most consonants, and most phonemes for that matter, resonate in the oral cavity, while others, like [n], resonate in the nasal cavity. So a phoneme can be voiced or voiceless, nasal or oral, and it can also fall into these categories:
Stops ([p], [b], [m] [t], [d], [n], [k], [g], [ŋ], [ʔ], [tʃ], [dʒ]): A stop is a manner of articulation where the airstream coming out of the mouth is briefly blocked, or stopped. Notice how in saying [t] there is a brief moment of tension before the tongue is released from the alveolar ridge. That is a stop. [m], [n], and [ŋ] are stops because even though air flows unobstructed through the nose, the airflow of the oral cavity is completely stopped.
[p], [b] and [m] are called bilabial stops because the air is obstructed by the lips. [t], [d], and [n] are alveolar stops because the air is blocked at the alveolar ridge. [k], [g], and [ŋ] are velar stops because the air is blocked at the velum. [ʔ] is a glottal stop because the air is blocked at the glottis.
Fricatives ([f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ], [h]): To make a fricative, the stream of air flows through a space constricted enough so that there is friction between the air and the place of articulation. [f] and [v] are labiodental fricatives because the air is constricted between the lips and the teeth. With the vocal tract diagram and the chart below it, you should be able to figure out the rest.
Affricates ([tʃ], [dʒ]): An affricate is a stop immediately followed by a fricative. This is clearly represented in the IPA symbols. Ch in church is really [t] and [ʃ] combined.
Liquids ([l], [r]): Liquids are phonemes in which the airstream is somewhat constricted, but there’s enough open room so that it’s not a fricative. For [r], the tongue only comes very close to the roof of the mouth, the two parts don’t feed air through a constricted enough space to create friction.
Glides ([j], [w]): Glides are consonants derived from vowels. Notice how when you say yeah with uncertainty, you might draw it out and say “ee-yeah….” Usually when you say yeah, your mouth rapidly transitions from the position of [i] to the position of [æ]. There is little obstruction and you glide smoothly from one vowel to the next. These are named in unpredictable ways. [w] is a labiovelar glide because the lips are together and the tongue is raised to the velum. [j] is a palatal glide because the tongue is raised to the palate.
Now, we have covered all the ways consonants can be described: their voicing, whether they are oral or nasal, and the place and manner of articulation. For example, [v] is a voiced oral labiodental fricative. “Oral” is redundant. A consonant is assumed oral unless it is explicitly said to be nasal. So [v] is just a voiced labiodental fricative.
Vowels
Vowels are a bit trickier to grasp than consonants because it’s harder to feel oneself making them. When saying [θ] like in thin, one feels the tongue between the teeth. With vowels, it’s harder to feel what the vocal tract is actually doing.
Luckily, there are less factors going into what makes a vowel sound the way it does than those going into what makes a consonant sound the way it does. The only things that make a vowel are the height of the tongue, the part of the tongue involved, and the shape of the lips. In the vowel [i] in knee, the front part of the tongue (but not the tip) is involved and it’s raised. For [u] in knew, the back part is raised. So [u] and [i] are both high vowels, but [u] is a back vowel and [i] is a front vowel. Meanwhile, [a] is a low back vowel, because the back of the tongue is low. Try elongating these phonemes and see if you can feel where the tongue is.
Luckily, there are less factors going into what makes a vowel sound the way it does than those going into what makes a consonant sound the way it does. The only things that make a vowel are the height of the tongue, the part of the tongue involved, and the shape of the lips. In the vowel [i] in knee, the front part of the tongue (but not the tip) is involved and it’s raised. For [u] in knew, the back part is raised. So [u] and [i] are both high vowels, but [u] is a back vowel and [i] is a front vowel. Meanwhile, [a] is a low back vowel, because the back of the tongue is low. Try elongating these phonemes and see if you can feel where the tongue is.
Diphthong
Diphthongs are two vowels together. More specifically, a vowel followed by a glide. The vowel in high [haj] is [a] + [j]. The first vowel in vowel [vawəl] is [aw], [a] + [w]. Most vowels in English are actually diphthongs, even though the textbook just represents them with one character. The word day [de] should technically be written [dej], or, even more precisely, [deɪ], but I haven’t gotten to that point yet. English o is technically [o] + [w], [ow]. These diphthongs are not usually what [e] and [o] represent in IPA. The o in Spanish mano [mano] is truly [o]. It is a single phoneme.
Pronunciation of Morphemes
What I have been talking about so far is mere phonetics, or how phonemes are literally articulated. Now I’m going to talk about how sounds come together and give an example of what phonologists study.
How do you pronounce the past tense suffix -ed? Your first answer might be [d], obviously. And that’s true for the word tried [trajd], but not for talked [takt]. Then it’s pronounced [t]. So how does one describe how a morpheme is pronounced?
Here is a list of a few past tense verbs:
How do you pronounce the past tense suffix -ed? Your first answer might be [d], obviously. And that’s true for the word tried [trajd], but not for talked [takt]. Then it’s pronounced [t]. So how does one describe how a morpheme is pronounced?
Here is a list of a few past tense verbs:
Snowed, cuffed, helped, waited, caused, moved, loaded, loved, faced, rated, barred, fooled, grabbed, raked, judged, watched, nagged, breathed
Within this group of words, -ed is pronounced three ways
- [d] snowed, caused, moved, loved, barred, fooled, grabbed, judged, nagged, bathed
- [t] cuffed, helped, faced, raked, watched
- [əd] waited, loaded, rated
Now, instead of listing the words, let’s list the phoneme that directly precedes -ed.
- [d]: [o], [z], [v], [r], [l], [b], [dʒ], [g], [ð]
- [t]: [f], [p], [s], [k], [tʃ],
- [əd]: [t], [d]
Now we ask ourselves the question: what do these phonemes have in common? Well, notice how in all cases where -ed is pronounced, [d], the preceding phonemes are voiced consonants or vowels. For [t], all the phonemes are voiceless consonants. But let’s not be too quick to say that voiced consonants and vowels always yield [d], and voiceless consonants always yield [t]. [t] is a voiceless consonant and [d] is a voiced consonant, but both yield an [əd] pronunciation. What sets these phonemes apart from all the others? Looking at the other groups, one notices that there are many types of stops, fricatives, and liquids, but there are no alveolar stops. [t] and [d] are alveolar stops, and that’s the only way their different from the rest, so we can say that [əd] comes after alveolar stops. Now we can categorize the pronunciations this way:
- [d] After vowels and voiced consonants excluding alveolar stops
- [t] After voiceless consonants excluding alveolar stops
- [əd] After alveolar stops
Since you’re an English speaker, you probably found this pretty long-winded and in-depth for a fairly obvious feature of the language. However, this method is very useful in trying to decipher foreign pronunciations that we haven’t figured out yet.